Utility-scale solar PV plants reduce Eswatini's dependency on energy imports and contribute to the overall reduction of GHG emissions (9).

Increasing solar energy in the energy mix of Eswatini increases the domestic generation capacity, making it less dependent on external factors, and complements the country's available renewable energy resources (15).

Increased access to clean energy sources and decline in energy costs from domestic generation reduces reliance on wood fuel and charcoal for cooking and heating, and enables restoration of indigenous forests, ecosystems and land in Eswatini (9).

Poor disposal of dismantled solar PV e-waste in landfills may contaminate soil and threaten the environment due to the potential hazardous material in solar panels (36).

Larger utility-scale solar facilities may cause soil degradation and habitat loss due to the-scale of land area required for installing solar farms (35).

Insufficient high quality data of the impacts that occur may be available, with the first utility-scale solar PV plant having come into operation in October 2021 (17).

External factors, such as weather and component price fluctuation, may disrupt the expected impact (16).

As solar PV is a new technology in Eswatini, a lack of skilled workers to maintain and manage the plants may reduce the expected impact.

Lower dependency on energy imports, reduce carbon emissions and support economic productivity.

National Energy Policy, 2018: Seeks to create a framework for the energy sector that is robust and aligned to global trends. It is expected to create a conducive environment for investments in the energy sector, particularly large-scale solar PV projects (5).

National Energy Policy, 2018: Seeks to create a framework for the energy sector that is robust and aligned to global trends. It is expected to create a conducive environment for investments in the energy sector, particularly large-scale solar PV projects (5).

Independent Power Producers (IPP) Policy, 2015 : Aims to increase the utilization of local renewable energy resources, including solar besides biomass, by establishing an enabling environment to promote the establishment of sustainable renewable energy and IPP generation sources (18).

Competitive Bidding Method of Procurement for Power Projects of 2019: Acts as a transparent framework of procuring energy projects from independent power producers (IPPs) and creates an enabling system to allow them bid for renewable energy projects, such as solar and biomass (9).

Energy Efficiency and Conservation Policy of 2019: Seeks to secure energy supply through locally available resources such as solar. It is a high-level roadmap for implementation, covering regulations, financing, institutional responsibilities and monitoring and evaluation (26).

Financial incentives: The government has committed to invest E 800 million (USD 6.65 million) for 40 MW solar plants through independent power producers, as part of the Post COVID-19 Recovery Plan (33).

Fiscal incentives: As part of the Special Economic Zone Act (2018), investors benefit from a 20-year exemption from all corporate taxation (followed by taxation at 5%); full refunds of customs, value-added tax, and other taxes payable on goods purchased and unrestricted repatriation of profits (22).

Other incentives: The S10 Lifeline Tariff cushions lower usage customers against high prices; it is an attempt to increase energy security and advance poverty alleviation (28).

Eswatini Electricity Act, 2007: Reforms and consolidates the laws regulating the generation, transmission, distribution and supply of electricity in Eswatini and sets obligations to hold licenses (1).

Eswatini Energy Regulatory Authority Act, 2007: Allows the establishment of Swaziland Energy Regulatory Authority with the mandate to administer the Electricity Act (1).

The Grid Connection Code for Renewable Power Plants Connected to the Electricity Transmission System or the Distribution System, 2014: Specifies minimum technical requirements for renewable energy plants wishing to connect to the grid (19).

Swaziland Electricity Company Act, 2007: Provides for the establishment of the Eswatini Electricity Company (EEC) under the Companies Act and performance by that company of the powers and functions presently performed by the EEC relating to the generation, transmission, distribution and supply of energy (20).

Legal Notice No. 324 the Public Procurement Act, 2020: Regulates the procurement of goods, works and services by procuring entities, including for solar PV projects, to ensure transparency, accountability and promote diverse private sector participation in public procurements (34).

Globeleq, Sturdee Energy South Africa, Frazium Energy, Innovent SAS, JCM Umber, Sola Group-Ubombo Sugar Consortium, African Clean Energy Developments (ACED), T Colle Jabil Consortium, Green Yellow Indian Ocean, ib Vogt GmbH and Eswatini Sustainable Energy Ltd.

Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Eswatini Electricity Company (EEC), Eswatini Energy Regulatory Authority (ESERA).

Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), Africa Development Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF), Green Climate Fund (GCF), International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).

United States Agency for International Development (USAID).